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The Republic of Indonesia (IPA: /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziːə/, /ˌɪndəˈniːziːə/) (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a nation in Southeast Asia. Comprising 17,508 islands, it is the world\'s largest archipelagic state. With a population of over 234 million people, it is the world\'s fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation, although officially it is not an Islamic state. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected parliament and president. The nation\'s capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia\'s history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. As a unitary state and a nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia\'s national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world\'s second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.
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The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".Tomascik, T; Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd.. ISBN 962-593-078-7. The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.(Indonesian) Anshory, Irfan. "Asal Usul Nama Indonesia", Pikiran Rakyat, 2004-08-16. Retrieved on 2006-10-05. In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): p.119. In the same publication, a student of Earl\'s, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): pp. 4:252–347. ; Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): pp. 254, 277–278. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde.(This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism). Justus M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171.
From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.Jusuf M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.
As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE.
Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.Pope (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 17: 43–77. Annual Review. cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd, 309–312. ; Pope, G (August 15, 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 80 (16): 4,988–4992. National Academy of Sciences. cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd, 309. ; de Vos, J.P.; P.Y. Sondaar, (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine 266 (16): 4,988–4992. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). doi:10.1126/science.7992059. cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd, 309. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded.Taylor (2003), pages 5–7 Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE, Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp.8–9. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia\'s strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE.Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp.15–18. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), pages 18–20, 60, 133–134
The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia\'s Banda Islands. Once one of the world\'s most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.
From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3 Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra\'s Borobudur and Mataram\'s Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.Peter Lewis (1982). "The next great empire". Futures 14 (1): 47–61.
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14 Other Indonesia areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14 The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.Ricklefs, M.C (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan, p.22–24. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.Ricklefs (1991), page 24
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia\'s current boundaries.Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves". Eighteenth-Century Studies 31 (3): 349–355. ; Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs 25 (3): 274–285. ; Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14 (24): 345–348. ; Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and History. Yale University Press, 325. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. ; Reid (1973), page 30 The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independenceCharles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14 (24): 345–348. ; Indonesian War of Independence". Military. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2006-12-11. (with the exception of The Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated following the 1962 New York Agreement, and UN—mandated Act of Free Choice).
Sukarno, Indonesia\'s founding president
Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, Islam, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280 An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.Friend (2003), pages 107–109; Chris Hilton (writer and director). Shadowplay [Television documentary]. Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions.; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290 Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.John Roosa and Joseph Nevins (5 November 2005). "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia". Counterpunch. Retrieved on 2006-11-12. ; Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966". Asian Survey 42 (4): 550–563. The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administrationJohn D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto\'s New Order". Royal Institute of International Affairs 44 (1): 40–47. was supported by the US government,US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. [1]; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70 and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. ; Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2. ; Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-X. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.
In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian Financial Crisis.Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. Willey, p.123. ISBN 0-471-83450-5. This increased popular discontent with the New OrderJonathan Pincus and Rizal Ramli (1998). "Indonesia: from showcase to basket case". Cambridge Journal of Economics 22 (6): 723–734. doi:10.1093/cje/22.6.723. and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. "President Suharto resigns", BBC, 21 May 1998. Retrieved on 2006-11-12. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of often brutal repression of the East Timorese.Burr, W.; Evans, M.L. (6 December 2001). Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia\'s Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. Retrieved on 2006-09-17.; International Religious Freedom Report. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State (2002-10-17). Retrieved on 2006-09-29. The Reformasi era following Suharto\'s resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.Robert W. Hefner (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor". Religion in the News 3 (1). Retrieved on 2006-12-12. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005."Aceh rebels sign peace agreement", BBC, 15 August 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the national government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of IndonesiaIn 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002 have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey (2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055. The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.The Carter Center (2004). "The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report" (PDF). Press release. Retrieved on 2006-12-13. The president serves a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms._ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Art. 7.
A session of the People\'s Representative Council in Jakarta
The highest representative body at national level is the People\'s Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.(Indonesian) People\'s Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI). Ketetapan MPR-RI Nomor II/MPR/2000 tentang Perubahan Kedua Peraturan Tata Tertib Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-11-07. The MPR comprises two houses; the People\'s Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 168 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR\'s role in national governance.Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006) The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation. People\'s Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI). Third Amendment to the 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-12-13.
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country\'s highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.Country Profile: Indonesia (PDF). U.S Library of Congress (December 2004). Retrieved on 2006-12-09.
In contrast to Sukarno\'s anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia\'s foreign relations approach since the Suharto "New Order" has been one of economic and political cooperation with Western nations.Indonesia - Foreign Policy. U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-05-05. Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.Background Note: Indonesia. U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 2007-05-05. The nation restored relations with the People\'s Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966. and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC). Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, and a member of OPEC, the Cairns Group and the WTO. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.
National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali
The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.Chris Wilson (11 October 2001). Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism. Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group. Parliament of Australia. Retrieved on 2006-10-15.; Reyko Huang (23 May 2002). Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War. Terrorism Project. Center for Defense Information. The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002."Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings", AAP, The Age Newspaper, 10 December 2006. The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, have severely damaged Indonesia\'s tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.US Embassy, Jakarta (10 May 2005). "Travel Warning: Indonesia". Press release. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
Indonesia\'s 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU).Chew, Amy. "Indonesia military regains ground", CNN Asia, 2002-07-07. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.Witular, Rendi A.. "Susilo Approves Additional Military Funding", The Jakarta Post, 2005-05-19. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. (English) In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed, its political influence remains extensive.Friend (2003), pages 473–475, 484 Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.Friend (2003), pages 270–273, 477–480; "Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh", BBC News, BBC, 29 December 2005. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.Indonesia agrees Aceh peace deal. BBC News. BBC (17 July 2005). Retrieved on 2007-05-20.; Indonesia starts Aceh withdrawal. BBC News. BBC (18 September 2005). Retrieved on 2007-05-20. In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.Lateline TV Current Affairs. "Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts", TV Program transcript, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group, Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC), 20 April 2006. ; International Crisis Group (5 September 2006). "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). Update Briefing (No. 53): 1. International Crisis Group. Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
Provinces of Indonesia
Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and (kota), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen\'s daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).
Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua provinces have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789. Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People\'s Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; Indonesia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the RegionPDF (146 KiB) (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91 Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People\'s Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete. Dursin, Richel; Kafil Yamin. "Another Fine Mess in Papua", Editorial, The Jakarta Post, 2004-11-18. Retrieved on 2006-10-05. ; "Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta", The Jakarta Post, 2004-11-18. Retrieved on 2006-10-05. Jakarta is the country\'s special capital region.
(Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)
† indicates provinces with Special Status
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Map of Indonesia
Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.International Monetary Fund (April 2006). "Estimate World Economic Outlook Database". Press release. Retrieved on 2006-10-05.; Indonesia Regions. Indonesia Business Directory. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the island of Borneo, Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation\'s largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet, pp.139, 181, 251, 435. ISBN 1-74059-154-2.
At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world\'s 16th-largest country in terms of land area.Central Intelligence Agency (2006-10-17). Rank Order Area. The World Factbook. US CIA, Washington, DC. Retrieved on 2006-11-03. Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,Population density - Persons per km² 2006. CIA world factbook. Photius Coutsoukis (2006). Retrieved on 2006-10-04. although Java, the world\'s most populous island,Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). Most Populous Islands. World Island Information. Retrieved on 2006-09-26. has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia\'s highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country\'s largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island\'s river settlements.Republic of Indonesia. Encarta. Microsoft (2006).
Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia\'s seismic and volcanic activity is among the world\'s highest.
Indonesia\'s location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates, makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,Volcanoes of Indonesia. Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2007-03-25. including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,The Human Toll. UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery. United Nations. Retrieved on 2007-03-25. and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd, 95–97.
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).
