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For people named "Islam", see Islam (name).
Muslims performing salah (prayer)
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Islam (Arabic: الإسلام; al-\'islām ) is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. The word Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God (Arabic: الله, Allāh).http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1 An adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to God)".L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Lane\'s lexicon. Retrieved on 2007-07-03. There are between 1.1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the second-largest religion in the world, after Christianity.Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur\'an to Muhammad, God\'s final prophet, and regard the Qur\'an and the Sunnah (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.See:
Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.Esposito (2002b), p.17 In addition to the Five Pillars, Islamic law (sharia) has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like dietary laws and banking to warfare.See:
Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni and Shi\'a. The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 percent are Shi\'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the Middle East, as well as in parts of Africa and Asia. Large communities are also found in China, the Balkan Peninsula in Eastern Europe and Russia. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world such as Western Europe. About 20 percent of Muslims live in Arab countries.See:
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The word Islām, from the triliteral root s-l-m, is derived from the Arabic verb Aslama, which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur\'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."Qur\'an 6:125, Qur\'an 61:7, Qur\'an 39:22 Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."Qur\'an 5:3, Qur\'an 3:19, Qur\'an 3:83 Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.See:
According to the Qur\'an all Muslims have to believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".Qur\'an 2:4, Qur\'an 2:285, Qur\'an 4:136 Also, there are other beliefs that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called divine decree,Sahih Muslim 1:1 while the Shi\'a version is called divine justice. Unique to the Shi\'a is the doctrine of Imamah, or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.See:
Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the angel Gabriel. For them, Muhammad was God\'s final prophet and the Qur\'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21 In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine revelation—either directly from God or through angels. The Qur\'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.See:
As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century."Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur\'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.
Islam\'s fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and ʾilāh (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (al-ilāh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā.See:
The first sura in a Qur\'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi
Muslims consider the Qur\'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam. "Qur\'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur\'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on July 6 632. The Qur\'an was written down by Muhammad\'s companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized in the time of Uthman, the third caliph. The Qur\'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance and that historically controversy over the content of the Qur\'an has never become a main point. See:
The Qur\'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.See:
The Qur\'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".Esposito (2004), p.79 Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Muhammad\'s life, to both supplement the Qur\'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur\'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.See:
The word Qur\'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur\'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur\'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original\'s inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur\'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur\'an itself.See:
Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur\'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in perfect obedience.Qur\'an 21:19-20, Qur\'an 35:1 Angels\' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person\'s actions, and taking a person\'s soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man\'s behalf. The Qur\'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"See:
Muhammad (c. 570 – July 6 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.See:
The Masjid al-Nabawi ("Mosque of the Prophet") in Medina is the site of Muhammad\'s tomb.
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.See:
In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad\'s life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi\'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad\'s actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur\'an.See:
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur\'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars. The Qur\'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.See:
The Qur\'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur\'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān).Qur\'an 9:72 Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.See:
In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa\'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur\'anic verses such as "Say: \'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector\'…"See:
The Shi\'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu\'tazila, stresses the importance of man\'s responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God\'s creation and foreknowledge of all things.Momen (1987), pp.177,178
Islam\'s basic creed (shahadah) written on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi\'an, China
Rituals of the Hajj (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the Kaaba in Mecca.
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi\'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.See:
In addition to the khums tax, Shi\'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is Amr-Bil-Ma\'rūf, the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is Nahi-Anil-Munkar, the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.Momen (1987), p.180
The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief". "Shari\'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur\'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur\'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.See:
Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur\'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi\'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.See:
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.See:
Jihad means "to strive or struggle," and is considered the "sixth pillar of Islam" by a minority of Muslim authorities.Esposito (2003), p.93 Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one\'s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one\'s own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18 Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect. Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18 Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad Jihad also refers to one\'s striving to attain religious and moral perfection.See:
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against states which refuse to convert to Islam or submit to the authority of Islam. "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Treaties (`ahd) may be established, subject to payment of the kharaj, although jurists differ over its permitted longevity. "Dar al-`Ahd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi\'s occultation in 868 AD. cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
Islam\'s historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad\'s first recitations of the Qur\'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.See:
Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad\'s death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad\'s intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad\'s companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr\'s immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".See:
The territory of the Caliphate in 750
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā\' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.See
When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu\'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi\'a.Waines (2003) p.46 After Mu\'awiyah\'s death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul} in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.See:
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;Hawting (2000), p.4 the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad\'s uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi\'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83 Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.See:
Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin\'s Ayyubid forces
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph\'s titular authority.See:
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh\'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi\'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.Lapidus (2002), p.86 Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.See:
The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41 In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma\'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.See:
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, bringing the Muslim world into conflict with Christendom. Initially successful in their goal of taking the Holy land, and establishing the Crusader states, Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin; who recaptured Jerusalem during the Second Crusade.Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310 In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran in Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250See:
The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Turkic dynasties. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress succumbed shortly thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman cannonry.See
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.Esposito (2004), pp.104,105 Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur\'an. "Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under MughalEsposito (2004), p.65
In the early 16th century, the Shi\'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi\'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.See:
By the 17th and 18th centuries, desp
